Leadership and Managing

Leadership and Managing

it is believed through research and theory that an effective leader designs a system that takes into account the expectancies of subordinates, the variability of motives between individuals and from time to time situational factors, interpersonal relations and types of rewards. Managers when hoping to provide an environment for performance take into account organizational goals and the means of achieving them, ensure that organizational roles are defined and well structured and when the roles are competently and intelligently staffed.

CULTIVATED BEHAVIOR OF LEADERS

CULTIVATED BEHAVIOR OF LEADERS

The interpersonal relationships of leaders and followers can be improved considerably as a leader cultivates certain behavior. This behaviors include

a) Awareness: Leaders should have a behavior of general awareness,not only for their jobs, but should also have an awareness of what they can do to be better managers and how to motivate their subordinates. Being aware of the factors that make for leadership effectiveness and of the way in which styles are contingent on a range of situational considerations should help any manager learn to be a more effective leader. Furthermore,as it is true in every area of management,knowing and being knowledgeable are not enough. A manager must also have the ability to apply this knowledge to practice.

b) Empathy: Webster defines empathy as "the imaginative projection of one's own consciousness into another being". Empathy is the ability to place one's self in the position of another,stimulating that person's feelings,prejudices and value.

Managers without empathy dont place themselves in the position of their subordinates, they believe that their subordinates have the same objectives,ambitions, values and biases like them. But it is not likely they would have the subordinates would have the same as the managers because people widely differ in every respect but one, which is that they are all guided less by reason than by emotion and the causes of emotion are deeply personal. So many managers personalize benefits for subordinates, while the managers have the freedom to choose the benefits, subordinates must accept whatever the manager chooses and the problem being that subordinates or followers may value the freedom to choose more than they value any given benefits. Then they are charged with a lack of appreciation.

It is a very difficult thing to place one's self in the position of others,because for example a manager may try to do this with his subordinates but they are severely handicapped because outside of work they know very little about subordinates, their spiritual values,health condition, lifestyle, ambitions, personal relationships,loyalties and so on. Also apart from the problem of managers placing themselves in the position of subordinates, there is a problem of understanding or knowing the reaction subordinates would have to issues. Yet a forthrite and conscentious effort to understand subordinates is much better than none.

c) Objectivity: Being objective means looking at things

in a detached, impartial, fact-based way. Managers should strive to observe and trace the causes of events unemotionally. Even though they depend heavily on subordinates and often become emotional about them. It is important to evaluate from a distance, determine the actual causes of results and take intelligent steps to correct poor ones and encourage good ones.

This contradicts empathy, because empathy requires an attitude opposite to remoteness and unemotional analysis. Over emphasizing empathy may cloud a manager's ability to be objective, so a balance is needed. It may be difficult to achieve but each has its place in effective leadership.

d) Self Knowledge: The injunction to know thyself is used in the context of making people aware of why they behave as they do and also what they do to draw forth certain response, lack of response or even hostility from others. It is impossible to empathize or be objective without self knowledge. Managers should study how they behave and the reactions they receive from subordinates, so that hey can correct those which elicit negative responses. They should cultivate self knowledge and put it to work intelligently by watching for favorable and unfavorable reactions to their behavior and identifying causes.

The Human factor in Enterprise

The Human factor in Enterprise

To achieve enterprise objectives, all organized effort must be put into use. The objective is to produce and make available some kind of goods or services. It is universal and by no means only for profit making purposes, this effort is applicable to businesses,non-profit organizations, hospitals, universities and government. The needs and objectives of the various organizations are always top of the priority,but it should be noted that the individuals working for them would also have their own needs and objectives that are especially important to them. Through leading,managers see they can help team members satisfy their own needs while at the same time they are contributing to the aims of the enterprise. This requires an understanding of the roles assumed by people, their individuality, their dignity and their holistic nature.

It is important to recognize that individuals are much more than a productive factor, they are members of social systems of many organizations, they are consumers of the produced goods and services,and they have an influence over the demand of the products. In these roles, the influence they exercise establishes laws and govern managers, ethics that guide behavior and a tradition of human dignity that is a major characteristic of our society.

It is important to know that not everyone is the same and there is no average person. The trend is for organizations to develop rules, procedures, work schedules, safety standards and many more with the assumption that everyone is alike. I am not saying that this is not necessary to a great extent in organized efforts to instill discipline and work towards a common goal, but the organization should also recognize that people are unique and they have different needs , different attitudes, different ambitions, different desires for responsibility, different skill-set and different potentials.

So unless the complexity and individuality of people are clearly understood, the generalizations about motivation,leadership and communication may be misapplied by managers. This means that principles and concepts although generally true have to be adjusted to fit the specific situation.

The main aim for an enterprise is to do what ever it takes excluding negative and unethical things to achieve the enterprise's objectives,but in so doing the management should never violate the dignity of people.The concept of individual integrity derived from ethical philosophy means that people must be treated with respect,no matter what their position in the organization may be.

Models of People

Models of people

People are complex and when dealing with them, you have to understand their complexities in order to get the most out of them. Managers, whether they consciously know it or not, have in their mind a model of individual and organizational behavior that is based on assumptions about people. These assumptions and their related theories influence managerial behavior.

Edgar H. Schein developed four conceptions about people, The first being the concept of the rational-economic man, he asumed in this instance that people are primarily motivated by economic incentives. He goes on further to say that since these incentives are controlled by the enterprise, this assumption is based on the belief that people are essentially similar to that listed as theory x by Mcgregor.

Schien's second model is the "social man" which is based on the assumption that man is social In nature and there is a need for interaction between man and other people to have a sense of belonging.

The third model of Schein is the self actualizing man and it is based on the assumption that motives fall into five classes in a hierarchy ranging from simple survival needs to the highest needs of self actualization which maximizes one's potential. This model believes that people can be self motivated and can be mature.

The fourth model which Is complex man, presents Schein's own view of people. The underlying assumption he makes are that people are complex and variable and have many motives which combine into a complex motive pattern.

Other models of people include

• Behavioristic: This view believes that people's behaviors are controlled by their environment a strategy to maximize one's potential under this model is changing the environment to get the desired behavior from subordinates.

• Phenomenological: This model assumes that people are unpredictable, unique, subjective and relative but with potential. A manager adopting this model would have to study and understand the complex functioning of the brain of subordinates, because it is there that behavior originates.

• Rational: It is believed in this model that people behave rationally, they collect and evaluate information systematically and make decisions based on an objective analysis of the different alternatives available.People can be interacted with on a rational basis by managers since it is deemed that people are rational, but managers in so Interacting with people, sweeps aside their feelings, their emotions, and the human side of their personalities.

• Emotional: This holds that people are ruled primarily by their emotions, some of which are uncontrollable. Managers in this model have to be patient and tolerant with people and seek to understand the underlying psychological causes of employees' behavior.

• Economic: According to this view, it is believed that people are motivated by economic factors, it is assumed that people act rationally get satisfaction from monetary rewards. Managers with this view would see money as the prime way to elicit contributions from subordinates.

• Self-actualizing: This view contrasts the economic view, it holds that people want to increase their competencies, they want to develop and strive to use their potentials. A manager adhering to this model would want to establish an environment in which people could exercise self-direction and reach their full capabilities.

Maximizing your team

Maximizing your team:

To be a good leader,you must be able to harness the powers of your team members and lead them to achieving their full potentials. Now let's look at what makes a great leadership team.

Each team member has his own unique strengths,but the most cohesive and successful teams possess broader groupings of strengths. As a leader distinct domain of leadership strengths include: Executing, influencing, relationship building and strategic thinking. These categories are general and broad for the type of strengths leaders can possess. They can be used to measure how leaders can contribute positively to the team. Even as it is categorized as leadership strengths, these four categories should be found in a team in order for it to be successful. It is not compulsory it should be found in only one individual,as individuals have distinct strengths and abilities, but the team as a whole should be well represented in these four categories.

Executing: it is the carrying out of plans successfully or making things happen. Leaders with dominant strength here know how to make things happen. Some of the characteristics a leader who is strong in executing should have include: 

1) Should be an high achiever

2) Should be consistent in work and performance

3) Should be deliberative

4) Should be discipline

5) Should have focus

6) Should be responsible

7) Should be restorative

Influencing: Influencing is the ability to persuade people to do your bidings, or to sway the decisions people make to your own way. A leader who leads by influencing help their team reach a more broader audience. People with strength in this domain give a wider exposure to the goods or services of the team, they sell the team's ideas inside and outside the organization and they speak and make sure the group is heard. Some of the characteristics of leaders that have this strength include:

1) Activator

2) Communicator

3) Command

4) Competition

5) individualization

6) Self - Assurance

Relationship Building : Leaders should be possess this strength I order to bring the team together and get them working to the maximum potential. Without this strengths on a team, in many cases, the group is simply a composite of individuals. Leaders with the exceptional strength of relationship building have the unique ability to create groups and organizations that are much greater than the sum of their parts.

the characteristics of leaders that have this strength include:

1) Adaptability

2) Empathy

3) Includer

4) Harmony

5) individualization

6) Positivity

Strategic thinking: Leaders with strategic thinking as their strength look at the big picture, they think about the future, they are constantly absorbing and analyzing information and helping the team make better decisions. Within this domain,a leader strong in strategic thinking might explain how past events influenced present circumstances or navigate the best route for future possibilities. Characteristics of Leaders with this strength include:

a) They are analytical

b) They are futuristic

c) They have intellectual abilities

d) They love to learn

e) They are strategic

Functional leadership

Functional leadership

Leadership goes hand in hand with motivation,it is rare to find an effective leader who does not motivate others. Functional leadership training was first developed at the Royal Military Academy,Sandhurst as part of a programme introducing young officers to the responsibilities of leadership. But to fit the activities of industry and commerce,it was renamed Action-Centred leadership. Action-Centred leadership was basically the same as the functional leadership although the practical excercises and case studies where changed.

Instead of asking what good leaders are,a functional approach asks what they have accomplished,the advantage of this approach to leadership is that it is result oriented in the sense that it judges performance of leaders based on the results expected of good leaders,that means responsibility is on the leader to ensure results conform to plans because it does not criticise the people themselves but the one who leads them.

Functional leadership analysis also serves as a useful framework for understanding essentially different types of leaders,ie leaders with different traits and behaviours. This is so because actions by leaders are examined based on the purpose or function they serve.

FUNCTIONAL LEADERSHIP THEORY

This theory argues that the leader's main job is to see that whatever is necessary to group needs is taken care of; thus a leader can be said to have done their jobs well when they have contributed to group effectiveness and cohesion. (Fleishman et al., Hackman & Wageman,2005; Hackman & Walton,1986).

The fundamental functions of a leader are:

Direction: A leader directs his followers and chooses a path to follow,he describes their mission and goals and they channel more of their energy into ensuring that they achieve this goals.

Motivation: A leader has to find a way to convince people to have that desire or willingness to do something .Motivation is when people find work and its goals rewarding; they generally prefer team and goal oriented behaviour to non goal oriented behaviour.

Guidance: Leaders give advice of information aimed at resolving a problem or difficulty,they get information about progress and how to improve it.

Functional leadership theory model concentrates on how leadership occurs ,rather than focusing on who does the leading. It defines the types of behaviours that guide an organization and then looks at how those behaviours occur.

Functional Leadership Model:

Here,leadership is not centralised but distributed,it is not a question of who,but how,because people at all levels can participate in guiding the organization. In organizations,it is normal that decisions are made every time and opinions are formed. Functional leadership model does not look at who made the decisions but how this decisions are made. By focusing on the function of leadership,it is easier to see the thing or events that are influencing the organization even if the input ie coming from informal and unlikely source.

The functional theory of leadership places greater emphasis on how an organization or task is being led rather than who has been formally assigned a leadership role. To be effective, the group must clearly establish and understand the task,delegate responsibilities,identify resources and establish accountabilities and evaluate progress.

Functional Approach to Leadership

The functional approach to Leadership is based on the notion that there would be in any given group three area's of need. These needs are the task needs,team needs and individual needs. The task need is a prerequisite for the existence of the group, the team need is a structured approach in order to deal with the task at hand and individual needs are the needs of the individual that make up the team.

THE TASK

In a task,the supervisor's function can be put into six simple points:

• Defining the task: There is a need to identify and define the task at hand,this can also be termed as assessing the situation. Here there is a systematic review of the overall needs of the task from financial to logistic to human resource needs.

• Making a plan: Plans are formed based on the assessment above to carry out tasks successfully. Because they have assessed the situation to the best of their ability with the information available,they will also be able to make decisions about the level and quantity of resources that would be required.

• Controlling quality: here,project management skills kicks in,there needs to be struck a balance between the urgency or not of the task and the speed to which it would be completed.

• Checking performance against plan.: Also known in strategic management terms as controlling.variances are checked if any between the actual results and the preset objectives. There is close and careful monitoring of the progress of an operation so that developing difficulties can be speedily determined.

• Adjusting the plan: due to new developments of forces outside the control of the organization,plans might need to be reviewed to conform with the current issues at hand.

Team maintenance functions.

Tasks are accomplished by group efforts,and so for better coordination of activities,the following are part of the team maintenance needs

• Setting standards: The standards to be set must be clear and unambiguous and strictly adhered to. The leader should also ensure he strictly follows the rules so that he leads by example.

• Maintaining Discipline:They should be an inbuilt sense of discipline generated by healthy motivation. This would come from a shared sense of purpose and a positive attitude from management with a firm but consistent framework.

Building team spirits should be worked on and team building activities should be developed.

Individual functions.

individual functions include

• Attending to personal problem
• Praising individuals

• Giving status
• Recognising and using abilities.

Leadership and the various Approaches to Leadership

Definition


Leadership is an important aspect of managing. The ability to lead effectively is one of the keys to being an effective manager. The essence of the leadership is followership in other words, it is the willingness of people to follow that makes a person a leader.


Leadership is defined as influence, the art or process of influencing people so that they will strife towards the achievement of group goals. It is the art of inspiring surbodinates to perform their duties willingly, competently and enthusiastically. To lead is to guide conduct, direct and precede. Leaders act to help a group achieve objectives with the maximum application of its capabilities. They do not stand behind; they place themselves before a group as they facilitate progress and inspire the groups to accomplish organizational goals like a choirmaster or orchestra leader.


All human groups have a leader, such diverse organizations as street gangs, political parties and business organizations generally have someone who is either appointed or who emerges as a leader. The leader should possess the ability to understand the divers motivating forces, the ability to inspire and the ability to act and develop a climate capable of arousing motivation.


Leadership Theories.

1. The trait approach to leadership: The earliest approach to leadership was based on traits possessed by leaders. These includes agressive self assurance, intelligence, initiative, a drive for achievement or power, appearance, interpersonal skills, administrative ability, imagination, a certain upbringing and education and the ability to rise above a situation and analyse it objectively (The helicopter factor)

Under this approach, it is generally believed that leaders are born and not made although this has lost much of its acceptability now. The trait approach has not been very much accepted since all leaders do not possess all the traits and many non- leaders may possess most or all of them. Also, the trait approach gives no guide as to how much of any trait a leader should have.

Nevertheless, there appears to be some correlation between certain traits and leadership effectiveness.




2. The situational approach: Under this approach, it is generally believed that leaders are products of given situations. Examples abound in history on leaders who emerged out of given situations. These include Hitler and the second world war, President F.D. Roosevelt and the china revolution. Studies have revealed that effective leadership depends on response to environmental factors such as the history of the enterprise, the community, the psychology of the group, personalities, culture and the timing for decisions. This approach has much relevance to managerial practise.




3. Fielder’s contingency approach: Fred Fielder has found that success of a leader is not based on personality traits alone. Other factors, particularly that of a situational nature (kind of organization, nature of task, characteristics of the people being managed) also determine how effective a manager will be in leading.
In the Fielder’s model, three major factors that influence a leader’s style are:

a). Position Power: Derived from organizational authority. The more position a manager has, the easier it is for him to induce people to follow him.

b). Task Structure: the clarity with which tasks are defined. When tasks are vague, the manager has more difficulty in measuring performance and holding people than when jobs are clearly defined.

c). Leader-Member relations: The degree to which surbodinates trust, have confidence in, and are loyal to the leader.

Fielder postulated two styles of leadership which are:


a). Task oriented: Task oriented managers are primarily interested in work objectives being achieved satisfactorily.

b). People oriented: People oriented managers are mainly interested in building cooperative, harmonious working environments and in developing successful interpersonal relationships. Fielder;s research led to the development of a contingency theory of leadership. This theory states that group’s performance will be contingent upon the appropriate matching of leadership styles and the degree of favourableness of the situation for the leader .


In unfavourable situations, the highly task oriented leader will be the most effective. That is when position power and task structure are very unclear and leader-member relations are poor, the situation is highly unfavourable and the most effective leader will be the one who is task oriented. Likewise, where position power is very high, task structure very clear and leader- member relations very good (a very favourable situation . The task oriented leader will be the most effective. However where the situation is only moderately unfavourable or favourable . The people oriented leader would be the most effective.




4. Rensis Likert’s Style
Rensis Likert developed four systems for classifying leaders. According to him, leadership is a continuum ranging from a highly dictatorial to exceptionally participative styles. These are:

a) Exploitative- Authoritative: Leaders in this class are autocratic, they do not seek the opinions of surbodinates but make major decisions independently. They motivate through fear and punishment.

b) Benevolent- Authoritative: These managers have a condescending confidence and trust in surbodinates, motivate with reward and some fear of punishment. Some permit upward communication, solicit some ideas and opinion from surbodinates and allow some delegation of decision making but with close control.

c) Consultative: This type of leaders have considerable confidence in their surbodinates. They delegate extensively, encourage surbodinates to make recommendations and rely on rewards more than punishments to motivate.

d) Participative: Leaders using this style intentionally seek to involve members of the group in decision making process. They liberally delegate authority and use rewards, not punishment to motivate.

Likert is an advocate of system four (4), although in practice, most leaders fall in- between the autocratic and participative classification.




5. Argyris’s Immaturity – Maturity Continuum: Chris Argyris maintains that employees tend to place their own needs ahead of the organization’s welfare. He argues that, to the extent that this occurs, conflict, apathy and discord result. For managers to lead effectively and for surbodinates to develop greater interest in the goals of the enterprise, people should be provided with a climate in which they can mature.



6. Robert Blake and Jane Mouton’s Managerial grid.: The managerial grid developed by Robert Blake and Jane Mouton often play a part in organisations development and leadership. The Grid is a devise for assessing the orientations of managers to the work of the organization and the people who are expected to perfor the work. Five styles of leadership have been identified as shown below.

It is assumed that all organizations endorse and work towards the 9.9 point on the grid. The Blake – Mouton Grid is a convenient way to classify leadership styles.

Factors that affect leadership effectiveness

a) Organizational size

b) Interaction of group members

c) Personalities of group members

d) Congruence of goals.